| INTRODUCTION | | | | do not have to become natural disasters. With |
| Coastal zone is defined as "the coastal waters | | | | proper planning, including proper environment |
| (including the lands therein and thereunder) and the | | | | management, much of the risk can be reduced. The |
| adjacent shorelands (including the waters therein and | | | | risks posed by natural hazards in United States are |
| thereunder), strongly influenced by each other and in | | | | exacerbated by social and environmental trends such |
| proximity to the shorelines of the several coastal | | | | as rapid urbanization and unplanned human |
| states, and includes islands, transitional and intertidal | | | | settlements, poorly engineered construction, lack of |
| areas, salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches." Coastal | | | | adequate infrastructure, poverty, and inadequate |
| locations were some of the first settled in the | | | | environmental practices such as deforestation and |
| country, and have always accounted for a major | | | | land degradation. |
| percentage of the overall population. They were the | | | | Given the significant costs of the nation's |
| primary centers for transportation, tourism, | | | | catastrophic natural disasters, focus has shifted in |
| recreation, commercial fishing, and other industry. This | | | | recent years to expand beyond emergency |
| coastal zone remains a crucial segment of the nation's | | | | preparedness and response to include a more |
| overall economy. A variety of natural hazards | | | | long-term emphasis on disaster loss reduction. Hence |
| regularly threaten this coastal zone. Severe | | | | it requires for a quantitative assessment of natural |
| meteorological events such as hurricanes, tropical | | | | hazards vulnerability for coastal zone. This |
| cyclones, and nor'easters are particularly harsh on | | | | quantitative assessment of natural hazards is aimed |
| coastal areas, often resulting in damages from high | | | | to minimize either an individual's or a community's |
| winds, storm surge, flooding, and shoreline erosion. | | | | vulnerability to future disaster damages. Over the |
| Tsunamis, whose destructive force is characterized | | | | years, progress has been made in reducing hazard |
| by potentially devastating flood inundation, are | | | | impacts through better predictions, forecasts, and |
| uniquely coastal events resulting from offshore | | | | warnings, particularly for meteorological hazards such |
| earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic activity. Coastal | | | | as coastal storms and floods. General improvements |
| locations are also subjected to the impacts of | | | | in hurricane and tsunami prediction, and river and lake |
| long-term hazards such as chronic coastal erosion, | | | | level forecasting, have been possible using the latest |
| potential sea-level rise, and global climate change. | | | | in computer modeling technology. NOAA's National |
| Coastal hazard events can significantly affect or even | | | | Weather Service (NWS) is currently working with |
| alter the natural environment. Their impacts are | | | | several new technological systems that are intended |
| generally not considered to be "disastrous" unless | | | | to significantly improve future flood forecasting |
| they involve damages to human populations and | | | | capabilities. Though there were lot of techniques |
| infrastructure. When people and property are not | | | | available to assess vulnerability due to natural hazard |
| present, hazards are merely natural processes that | | | | quantitatively still it is necessary to acknowledge the |
| alter the environment. When people and property is | | | | scientific and technological information needs |
| present then the impacts of hazards are viewed | | | | throughout the various hazards-related disciplines and |
| quite differently. The primary focus is no longer on | | | | integration. Although significant progress has been |
| the natural processes associated with a major hazard | | | | made in the research and science associated with |
| event, but instead on the disastrous results that can | | | | natural hazards during the past 20 years, and |
| be measured by lives lost, property damages, and | | | | improvements in technology and understanding about |
| economic and environmental impacts. | | | | natural hazards and how to access its vulnerability |
| The impacts of natural hazards are becoming | | | | quantitatively requires a real-time networked scientific |
| increasingly costly and devastating. Hazard impacts on | | | | database. |
| the natural environment become more devastating | | | | Universities and research institutions (particularly the |
| because human development has altered the ability | | | | National Science Foundation), along with government |
| of natural systems to recover from such events. | | | | agencies such as NOAA and USGS that maintain |
| Experts believe that the statistics on disaster losses | | | | scientific hazards-related responsibilities, have |
| continue to rise worldwide due to a combination of | | | | contributed to advances in the scientific study of |
| factors that include a rise in the number of hazard | | | | natural hazards. There is now more quantitative |
| events due to global climate change or natural cyclical | | | | information available about the origins and behavior of |
| trends, and an increase in human exposure in | | | | hazard events but the concept of integration of the |
| hazardous locations. | | | | available data sets is lagged. |
| Some of the decrease in disaster damages | | | | This study is to integrate all the fields acting in |
| worldwide could also be the result of improvements | | | | coastal zone for the assessment of vulnerability. |
| in disaster monitoring and reporting capabilities, | | | | Maps delineating hazard-prone areas at national, state, |
| particularly in developing countries. But disaster loss | | | | and local levels are needed to provide more |
| increases in the United States seem to be most | | | | comprehensive hazards assessment using information |
| closely tied to increased human exposure in high risk | | | | on a variety of natural phenomena, including coastal |
| areas such as the nation's coasts. | | | | storms, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes, typhoons, |
| The United States has an expansive and diverse | | | | landslides, wildfires, drought, earthquakes, etc. Much |
| coastline that supports a disproportionate percentage | | | | of this information already exists, but issues such as |
| of the nation's population. The nation's 451 coastal | | | | data integration, compatibility, scales, accuracy, and |
| counties contain just over 50 percent of the U.S. | | | | resolution need to be addressed to make the |
| population, yet only account for about 20 percent of | | | | information useful at the local level. Better |
| the total U.S. land area. During the last decade, 17 of | | | | methodologies and models are also needed for |
| the 20 fastest growing counties were located along | | | | conducting hazard vulnerability assessments that can |
| the coast. In addition, 19 of the 20 most densely | | | | incorporate highly variable local conditions and |
| populated counties in the nation are coastal counties. | | | | characteristics. This calls for the site specific models |
| These coastal counties possess economic gain | | | | for better estimates. |
| through natural resources, maritime trade and | | | | Computer-based geographic information systems |
| commerce. These coastal counties also possess | | | | could be used to analyze hazards information and |
| economic loss due to the natural hazards, | | | | provide national risk assessment data to state and |
| overexploitation and exponential population growth. | | | | local governments in quick and easy manner. Specific |
| An assessment of both the economic gain and | | | | models could be generated by using the GIS |
| economic loss is briefly discussed as follows. | | | | software. New high-resolution remote sensing |
| Economic gain in U.S. coastal zone | | | | capabilities could be examined for use in large-scale |
| Nature article (May 1997), a group of ecologists | | | | risk and vulnerability assessment. Hence, remote |
| estimated the value on ecosystem in the coastal | | | | Sensing and GIS is to be intergrated and modeled for |
| zone. They estimated that the worth of the services | | | | the assessment of quantitative natural hazard |
| for marine ecosystems is approximately $21 trillion | | | | vulnerability. |
| per year. According to Sea Technology magazine, the | | | | Improvements in monitoring, data collection, and data |
| value of goods and services sold by the ocean | | | | processing account for most of the advancements |
| marine industry was estimated in 1995 as $60 billion | | | | made in short-term weather-related forecasting. |
| annually. Offshore oil and gas production has become | | | | Better modeling capabilities, along with a more |
| very important and the 1996 value was more than | | | | thorough understanding of variables, such as global |
| $8 billion and the annual offshore production is | | | | climate change and sea-level rise, are needed to |
| increasing. According to the National Oceanic and | | | | improve long-range forecasting and planning for |
| Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 77 million pounds | | | | coastal hazard impacts. |
| (meat weight) of shellfish were harvested from U.S. | | | | GIS integration / modeling for natural hazard |
| coastal waters in 1995, with a dockside value of $200 | | | | vulnerability |
| million. | | | | GIS is one of the powerful tools which can be used |
| Current NOAA estimates concerning the recreational | | | | for the assessment of Natural Hazards Vulnerability |
| uses of U.S. coastal areas includes: approximately 94 | | | | (NHV). Due to these techniques, natural hazard |
| million people boat and fish annually; the average | | | | mapping and vulnerability assessment could be |
| American spends 10 recreational days on the coast | | | | performed for the coastal zone. These maps will help |
| each year; The coasts (excluding the Great Lakes | | | | the authorities for quick assessment of potential |
| coastline) support 25,500 recreational facilities; More | | | | impact of a natural hazard and initiation of appropriate |
| than 180 million Americans visited ocean and bay | | | | measures for reducing the impact. This data will help |
| beaches in 1993; Recreational fishing contributes $13.5 | | | | the planners and decision-makers to take positive |
| billion annually to the U.S.economy; Coastal recreation | | | | steps in time. |
| and tourism generate $8 to $12 billion annually. | | | | GIS applications in the coastal zone are diversified and |
| Economic loss in U.S. coastal zone | | | | case-based. Applications studies such as (a) coastal |
| Disaster losses in the United States coastal zone are | | | | mapping, (b) environmental monitoring, (c) coastal |
| currently estimated conservatively at $50 billion | | | | process modelling, (d) navigation and port facilities |
| annually. The disaster loss between 1975 and 1994 is | | | | management, (e) coastal environmental / hazard |
| estimated as $500 billion. 80 percent of the losses | | | | assessment, (f) coastal management / strategic |
| were imposed by meteorological events and 10 | | | | planning, and (g) coastal ecological modeling could be |
| percent were the result of earthquakes and | | | | done through GIS. |
| volcanoes. A great earthquake (magnitude 8 or | | | | Coastal Mapping is mainly focused on thematic |
| larger) has not struck a major metropolitan area since | | | | mapping in the coastal zone, such as mapping |
| the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. An extreme or | | | | chlorophyll concentration using TM data (Chen et al. |
| catastrophic hurricane (Class 4 or 5) has not directly | | | | 1996). Environmental monitoring is one of the routine |
| struck a major urban area since the one that hit | | | | tasks in CZM, which include monitoring water quality |
| Miami, Florida, in 1926. Yet even without such | | | | and habitat/biodiversity, and beach watch. Coastal |
| disasters, which might create losses well over $100 | | | | processes modeling of physical environment change in |
| billion, the overall costs of natural hazards, such as | | | | the coastal zone includes the simulation of effects of |
| extreme weather, drought, and wildfires, are | | | | sea-level rise (Ruth and Pieper 1994, Grossman and |
| estimated at $54 billion per year for the past 5 years, | | | | Eberhardt 1992, Zeng and Cowell 1998, 1999, |
| or approximately $1 billion per week. In the United | | | | Hennecke 2000), the assessment of human |
| States, the direct costs to repair the damage | | | | intervention of shoreline change (Huang et al. 1999), |
| average about $20 billion per year, of which over $15 | | | | the use of historical data to predict future coastline |
| billion is due to tornadoes, hurricanes, floods and | | | | change (Sims et al. 1995) and the study of beach |
| earthquakes. | | | | morphodynamics (Humphries and Ligdas, 1997). There |
| The FEMA coastal erosion study conducted by The | | | | are another two subcategories of the applications of |
| Heinz Center for Science, Economics and the | | | | hazards, namely, short-term and long-term tasks. The |
| Environment estimates that approximately 25 percent | | | | former is exemplified with monitoring and predicting |
| of homes and other structures within 500 feet of | | | | oil spill (Belore, 1990), while the latter is demonstrated |
| the U.S. coastline and the shorelines of the Great | | | | by coastal hazard / vulnerability assessment due to |
| Lakes will fall victim to the effects of erosion within | | | | climate change (Lee et al. 1992, Sims, et al., 1995; |
| the next 60 years. Especially hard hit will be areas | | | | Deniels et al. 1996, Hickey et al. 1997, Zeng and |
| along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coastlines, | | | | Cowell 1999, Hennecke et al. 2000, Esnard et al. |
| which are expected to account for 60 percent of | | | | 2001). Coastal management / strategic planning |
| nationwide losses. The report estimates that costs to | | | | involve assessing sustainability of the environment, |
| U.S. homeowners will average more than a half billion | | | | social and economic viability. The above said studies |
| dollars per year, and that additional development in | | | | carried out in coastal zone are to be integrated using |
| high erosion areas will lead to higher losses. | | | | remote sensing and GIS for analysis. |
| Thirty-four floods have been reported in Wake | | | | The categories of GIS applications in coastal zone |
| County (data source: NDCD and SHELDUS). The total | | | | could be broadly categorized into three levels.a) Level |
| coastline of mapped shoreline of Gulf of Mexico | | | | 1: as data management and mapping tools,b) Level 2: |
| coast is about 8058 km out of which 3387 kms is in | | | | as basic data analysis (query) and mapping tools, |
| very high risk, 1056 kms is in high risk, 2968 km is in | | | | andc) Level 3: as decision-supporting tools (modelling / |
| moderately risk and 547 kms is in low risk category | | | | simulation). |
| due to sea level rise. So the 42 % of the coast line is | | | | Most current implementations of Coastal GIS are still |
| in high risk, 37 % moderate risk and 8 % low risk | | | | at Level 1 and Level 2. It is expected that Level 3 |
| (Robert Thieler et.al. 2001). | | | | implementations will rapidly increase in the near future |
| Hurricane Mitch, one of the most powerful and | | | | as the continuing improvement in GIS functions and |
| damaging storms experienced in Central America, | | | | more user-friendly interface become available in the |
| struck between 26 October and 1 November 1998. A | | | | market. Hence for the study of Quantitative |
| Category V hurricane, the event was characterized | | | | Assessment of Natural Hazard Vulnerability Level 3 |
| by intensive rainfall and high winds, dumping a year's | | | | application is to be adopted. |
| worth of precipitation in less than one week on the | | | | The two basic approach / analysis, which should be |
| region, causing the overflow of rivers, floods, | | | | followed for geospatial database development were |
| mudslides and landslides. Thousands of people were | | | | given below. |
| killed and left homeless. Mitch caused billions of dollars | | | | Integrated approach:a) integration of different level |
| of damage, and left huge tasks of reconstruction, | | | | of application,b) integration of vector and raster |
| resulting in the loss of decades of development | | | | (data and functions),c) integration of knowledge of |
| efforts in the region. | | | | different expertise, andd) integration of different |
| The Economic Commission for Latin America and the | | | | scales in time and space. |
| Caribbean (ECLAC) estimates that the direct cost of | | | | Because of the nature of integration, GIS applications |
| replacing the lost and damaged infrastructure in the | | | | should consider long-term integration. This includes the |
| region after Hurricane Mitch is some US$5,000 million | | | | vertical integration that involves different application |
| (Caballeros, 1999). | | | | (and potential) levels, and horizontal integration that |
| Recent large-scale disasters such as Hurricane Mitch | | | | involves other interest groups. Therefore, issues |
| and Georges, and the earthquake in Armenia, | | | | must be addressed from database design, data |
| Colombia have demonstrated the vulnerability of | | | | sharing to tool-making (analysis functions) and |
| society. It is widely recognized that recent population | | | | experience sharing. |
| growth, rapid urbanization and the socioeconomic | | | | Multi-criteria analysisa) multi - factors controls |
| structure in Central America have increased | | | | Since coastal system has a complex hierarchical |
| vulnerability of these countries to natural hazards. | | | | structure with multi-forcing exerting on each of |
| These disasters faced by the inhabitants both by | | | | subsystem, no mater which aspect of the system to |
| natural and anthropological effects lead to the | | | | be investigated, multi-variable analysis is an essential |
| formation of legislation / laws to govern. | | | | methods in the coastal environment.b) multi - discipline |
| Legislation & major acts in U.S. Coastal Zone | | | | approach for decision Other than the multi-factors, |
| The economic loss and economic yield as such felt by | | | | there are multiple interest groups of coastal |
| the inhabitants of the Earth has resulted in the | | | | community, therefore, good solutions to any coastal |
| formation of legislation. This legislation is framed for | | | | issues can only be derived from multidiscipline |
| the sustainable use of the available natural resources. | | | | approach. |
| When the loss is severe or the gain is enormous; the | | | | Output of the analysis |
| laws needs some revision hence they were amended | | | | I. Historical and real-time information with respect to |
| periodically. Some of the Laws and Acts pertaining to | | | | natural hazards will be gathered by satellite remote |
| U.S. coastal zone were National Environmental Policy | | | | sensing, aerial photographs and by other conventional |
| Act, Clean water Act, Marine Protection, Research | | | | means and integrated with GIS RDBMS. This results in |
| and Sanctuaries Act, Ocean Dumping Act of 1972, | | | | an extensive geo- database. |
| Water Resources Development Act of 1996, Coastal | | | | II. Through the modeling technique and by using the |
| Zone Management Act of 1972, Marine Mammal | | | | GIS RDBMS we can evaluate the likelihood of |
| Protection Act of 1972, Magnuson-Stevens Fishery | | | | experiencing specific natural hazard in the future, and |
| Conservation and Management Act of 1976 | | | | an estimation of intensity and probable level of |
| Endangered Species Act 1973, Nation wise Invasive | | | | impact. |
| Species Act of 1996, Oil Pollution Act of 1990, | | | | Each natural hazard will be evaluated for three |
| Comprehensive environmental response, | | | | characteristics: |
| compensation, and liability act of 1980, Rivers and | | | | 1. Likelihood of Occurrence, i.e., expected frequency; |
| Harbor Act of 1899, The Submerged Lands Act of | | | | 2. Likely Range of Impact, i.e., predictable size and |
| 1953, The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1934, | | | | location of impact; and |
| Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965, | | | | 3. Probable Level of Impact, i.e., estimated strength |
| Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act, Resource | | | | and damage potential. |
| Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 and The | | | | III. The level of severity of natural hazards will be |
| Coastal Barriers Resources Act of 1982. | | | | quantified in terms of the magnitude of the |
| Hence in order to amend these laws the integration in | | | | occurrence as a whole (event parameter) or in terms |
| different fields is attempted and discussed as follows. | | | | of the effect the occurrence would have at a |
| RESULTS AND DISCUSSION | | | | particular location (site parameter). |
| Assessment of Natural Hazard | | | | IV. For quantitative natural hazard vulnerability, some |
| Natural hazard is a phenomenon which occurs in | | | | weight value has to be added to the attribute column |
| proximity and poses a threat to people, structures or | | | | (slope, subsurface geology, current action, wave |
| economic assets and may cause disaster. They are | | | | action, meterology, wind action etc). The values that |
| caused by meteorological, biological, geological, | | | | will be given in the attribute columns could be |
| seismic, hydrological, or conditions or processes in the | | | | calculated with the help of the equation 1 modeled in |
| natural environment. Hazard assessment is the | | | | GIS environment. |
| process of estimating, for defined areas, the | | | | Natural hazard = (Wgeology + Wslope + Wwind + |
| probabilities of the occurrence of potentially - | | | | Wmeteo + Wsiesmisivity |
| damaging phenomenon of given magnitudes within a | | | | + Wgeomorphology + Wetc…) (1) |
| specified period of time. Hazard assessment involves | | | | Based on the above formula, natural hazard |
| analysis of formal and informal historical records, and | | | | vulnerability values could be retrieved by clicking on |
| skilled interpretation of existing meteorological, | | | | any land parcels from the coastal zone map. Such |
| topographical, geological, geomorphologic, hydrological, | | | | kind of values will have no meanings for the end |
| and land-use maps. | | | | users. To make the result more acceptable, a |
| Office of United Nations Development Relief | | | | separate domain is to be created in which the |
| Organization (UNDRO), defines the term vulnerability | | | | resultant values will be divided into three classes: very |
| as: "The degree of loss to a given element or set of | | | | high, high, moderate and low hazard areas |
| elements at risk resulting from the occurrence of a | | | | Weights Class: |
| natural phenomenon of a given magnitude. It is | | | | Values below than 30 Low hazard Area |
| expressed on a scale from 0 (no damage) to 1 (total | | | | Values between 30-40 Moderate Hazard Area |
| damage)". The vulnerability of an element is usually | | | | Values between 40-50 High Hazard Area |
| expressed as a percentage loss (or as a value | | | | Values between 50-60 Very High Hazard Area |
| between 0 and 1) for a given hazard severity level. | | | | V. Hazard mitigation plan is to be developed and it will |
| The measure of loss used depends on the element | | | | possess these five steps - |
| at risk, and accordingly may be measured as a ratio | | | | • identification of natural hazards that could |
| of the numbers of persons killed or injured to the | | | | impact the community, |
| total population, as a repair cost or as the degree of | | | | • assessment of the community's |
| physical damage defined on an appropriate scale. In a | | | | vulnerability to natural hazards, |
| large number of elements, like building stock, it may | | | | • assessment of the community's capability |
| be defined in terms of the proportion of buildings | | | | to respond to a natural disaster, |
| experiencing some particular level of damage. | | | | • assessment of the community's current |
| Assessment is an interdisciplinary process under-taken | | | | policies and ordinances that affect hazard mitigation, |
| in phases and involving on-the-spot surveys and the | | | | and |
| collation, evaluation and interpretation of information | | | | • development of hazard mitigation |
| from various sources concerning both direct and | | | | strategies that can be implemented to reduce future |
| indirect losses, short- and long-term effects. It | | | | vulnerability. |
| involves determining not only what has happened and | | | | VI. By using all the above factors site specific models |
| what assistance might be needed, but also defining | | | | for the assessment of natural hazard vulnerability |
| objectives and how relevant assistance can actually | | | | could be generated using GIS for U.S. coastal zone. |
| be provided to the victims. It requires attention to | | | | This will serve as an input for further amendment of |
| both short-term needs and long-term implications. | | | | legislation concerned with U.S coastal zone. |
| The United States is becoming more vulnerable to | | | | CONCLUSION |
| natural hazards mostly because of changes in | | | | U.S. coastal counties possess economic gain through |
| population and national wealth density. Due to this, | | | | natural resources, maritime trade and commerce and |
| people and infrastructure have become concentrated | | | | economic loss through natural hazards, |
| in disaster-prone areas. Natural Hazards threaten the | | | | overexploitation and exponential population growth. |
| sustainable development of United States, destroying | | | | About 80 percent of the losses were by |
| years of development efforts and investments, | | | | meteorological events and 10 percent were by |
| placing new demands on society for reconstruction | | | | earthquakes and volcanoes. Hence in order to |
| and rehabilitation, and shifting development priorities | | | | minimize the loss due to natural hazard a computer |
| away from long-term goals while immediate needs | | | | based geospatial database methodology is adopted |
| are met. For most of the 20th century, the United | | | | for natural hazards information retrieval and to |
| States has largely spared the expense for | | | | provide national risk assessment data to the state |
| catastrophic natural disaster. Significant progress has | | | | and local governments. Site specific models were |
| been made in understanding the various impacts that | | | | proposed for U.S. coastal zone by integrating GIS |
| hazards produce on human and natural environments. | | | | software and high-resolution remote sensing to |
| Numerous research activities have been undertaken | | | | quantify the large-scale risk and vulnerability. This |
| following the major hazard events of the past few | | | | modeling study could also be applied to developing |
| years. Unfortunately, much of this research is | | | | countries such as India, Pakistan, Srilanka etc. for the |
| piecemeal and has not been incorporated into any | | | | natural hazard vulnerability assessment in their coastal |
| type of comprehensive database on disaster losses. | | | | zones. |
| Natural hazards such as hurricanes and earthquakes | | | | |